Zoological Science

Batesian mimics gain protection from predation by their similarity to distasteful models. In butterflies, it has been thought that distasteful species and Batesian mimics fly slowly and in a straight line, but few studies have demonstrated their behavioral similarity, and no studies have been conducted on behavioral mimicry Involving Batesian intraspecific polymorphism. Here, we compared the wing stroke among various butterflies: palatable non-mimetic Papilio xuthus, unpalatable Pachliopta aristolochiae, and palatable polymorphic Papilio polytes (cyrus form, non-mimetic females; polytes form, Batesian mimetic females) to clarify whether the wing stroke of unpalatable butterflies is different from that of palatable species, whether that of the non-mimetic females of Pap. polytes is different from the mimetic females, and whether that of the mimetic females resembles that of the model. We found that the minimum positional angle ( _min) of Pach. aristolochiae and mimetic females of Pap. polytes was significantly larger than that of Pap. xuthus and non-mimetic females. We did not detect significant differences between that of Pach. aristolochiae and mimetic females of Pap. polytes. These results show that _min differed between the mimicry group and palatable butterflies. In addition, the wingbeat frequency (WBF) of Pach. aristolochiae and mimetic females tended to differ from that of Pap. xuthus and non-mimetic females. This result suggests that there may be convergence of WBF in Batesian mimicry groups, as in the case of Müllerian mimicry groups, and serves as the first evidence of behavioral mimicry in Batesian intraspecific polymorphism.

To elucidate genetic divergence and evolutionary relationship in Fejervarya cancrivora from Indonesia and other Asian countries, allozyme and molecular analyses were carried out using 131 frogs collected from 24 populations in Indonesia, Thailand, Bangladesh, Malaysia, and the Philippines. In the allozymic survey, seventeen enzymatic loci were examined for 92 frogs from eight representative localities. The results showed that F. cancrivora is subdivided into two main groups, the mangrove type and the large- plus Pelabuhan ratu types. The average Nel's genetic distance between the two groups was 0.535. Molecular phylogenetic trees based on nucleotide sequences of the 16S rRNA and Cyt b genes and constructed with the ML, MP, NJ, and BI methods also showed that the individuals of F. cancrivora analyzed comprised two clades, the mangrove type and the large plus Pelabuhan ratu / Sulawesi types, the latter further split into two subclades, the large type and the Pelabuhan ratu / Sulawesi type. The geographical distribution of individuals of the three F. cancrivora types was examined. Ten Individuals from Bangladesh, Thailand, and the Philippines represented the mangrove type; 34 Individuals from Malaysia and Indonesia represented the large type; and 11 individuals from Indonesia represented the Pelabuhan ratu / Sulawesi type. Average sequence divergences among the three types were 5.78–10.22% for the 16S and 12.88–16.38% for Cyt b. Our results suggest that each of the three types can be regarded as a distinct species.

A new kinorhynch species, Condyloderes megastigma sp. nov., is described from the Korea Strait. The new species is characterized by the presence of 16 placids with either eight, four, or two knobby projections, middorsal and lateroventral acicular spines on segments 1 to 9, lateroventral cuspidate spines on segment 2 in females only, but otherwise lateroventral cuspidate spines on segments 4 and 5, and 8 and 9 in both sexes. Unique for the new species is furthermore the presence of paired ventromedial appendages on segments 7 and 8, giant ventromedial sensory spots on segment 9, and a terminal segment consisting of one tergal and one sternal plate. The mouth cone and introvert armature are described in detail for the first time for the genus Condyloderes Higgins, 1969. This study reveals similarities in several morphological characters between this genus and species of Campyloderes Zelinka, 1913.

To determine the sex and identity of individual American minks (Neovison vsion), a species Introduced into Japan, molecular genetic methods were employed on fecal samples collected from the Kushiro Wetland, eastern Hokkaido. We examined the sex chromosome-linked genes ZFX and ZFY and 11 microsatellite loci to identify individuals. From microsatellite genotypes, the probability of identity was calculated to distinguish between individuals with 99% certainty. To evaluate the accuracy of the genotyping results, we used two approaches for several randomly selected samples. In the first approach, we genotyped all samples from the results of a maximum of three independent polymerase chain reactions (PCRs). In the second approach, we genotyped 10% of the samples from the results of five independent PCRs. Samples subsequent genotypings disagreed with the first genotype were counted as one of three categories of error. The results indicated that genotyping more than 10 microsatellite loci was required to reduce the probability of error in identity to less than 0.01. Twenty of 72 fecal samples were genotyped at 10 or 11 microsatellite loci and sex-determined by ZFX/ZFY genes, resulting in identification of five males and nine females. In assessing the accuracy of the results, genotyping errors were found to have occurred in 20% of the first genotypes. The main type of error was ‘missing data’, which can be prevented by increasing the number of replicate PCRs.

We kept 48 gravid short-tailed pit vipers (Gloydius brevicaudus) under four laboratory thermal conditions during gestation and collected 10 females from the field soon before they gave birth to test whether Shine's (1995) maternal manipulation hypothesis applies to temperate reptiles. Females thermoregulated more precisely but did not shift their selected body temperatures during pregnancy, with females at high body temperatures giving birth early in the breeding season. The lowest (22°C) and highest (32°C) temperature treatments Increased maternal mortality and resulted in production of offspring with smaller body dimensions. More deformed offspring were produced at 32°C, and more poorly performing offspring were produced at 22°C. In the field, air temperatures lower than 22°C and higher than 32°C accounted for about 9% and 33% of total temperature readings, respectively. However, offspring produced by field-caught females did not differ from those produced by laboratory-kept females with body temperatures optimal for embryonic development in nearly all traits examined. This suggests that in nature, gravid females avoid exposure of their embryos to temperature extremes through thermoregulation. Our study validates the key prediction of the maternal manipulation hypothesis that maternal thermoregulation should enhance fitness-related offspring traits, and demonstrates that viviparity evolves in temperate reptiles because internal development shields offspring from temperature extremes.

Tc1/mariner superfamily transposons are used as transformation vectors in various model organisms. The utility of this transposon family is evidenced by the fact that Tc1/mariner transposons have loose host specificity. However, the activity of these transposons has been observed in only a few organisms, and a recent study in the ascidian Ciona intestinalis suggests that not all Tc1/ mariner transposons show loose host specificity. To understand host specificity, we used sea urchins, since they have a long history as materials of embryology and developmental biology. Transposon techniques have not been reported in this organism, despite the likelihood that these techniques would open up many experimental possibilities. Here we tested the activity of three Tc1/ mariner transposons (Minos, Sleeping Beauty, and Frog Prince) in the sea urchin Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus. Minos has both excision and transposition activity in H. pulcherrimus embryos, whereas no excision activity was detected for Sleeping Beauty or Frog Prince. This study suggests that Minos is active in a broad range of non-host organisms and can be used as a transformation tool in sea urchin embryos.

The harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) and spotted seal (Phoca largha) are the main seal species around Hokkaido, Japan. While some investigations have been conducted on the ecology and morphology of these two species, there is a lack of genetic information. We studied variation in mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences in the two species. Fifteen haplotypes were observed in 39 harbor seals from Erimo, Akkeshi, and Nosappu, and 23 were observed in 31 spotted seals from Erimo, Akkeshi, Nosappu, Rausu, Yagishiri Island, and Hamamasu. Phylogenetic trees showed two harbor seal lineages: Group I contained primarily haplotypes from Erimo, and Group II contained haplotypes from Akkeshi and Nosappu. Because the Erimo population had fewer haplotypes and less nucleotide diversity than the Akkeshi and Nosappu populations, we considered it to be Isolated from the others. In contrast, genetic variance within populations of spotted seals (97.3%) was far higher than that among populations (2.7%), determined by analysis of molecular variance. There were no significant difference among the spotted seal populations, indicating the absence of distinct lineages around Hokkaido. The differences in the genetic population structure between the two species could have been generated by their ecological differences. This study provides basic genetic information on these seal species and will contribute to the conservation and management of fisheries and seals throughout Hokkaido.

Rodents belonging to the subfamily Gerbillinae and living in the Xinjiang-Uygur autonomous region of China were collected in field surveys between 2001 and 2003. We found four Meriones species, including M. chengi M. liycus, M. meridianus, and M. tamariscinus, as well as related species from different genera, Rhombomys opimus and Brachiones przewaliskii For phylogenetic analyses of these gerbilline species, DNA sequences of parts of the mitochondrial cytochrome b (Cytb) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit II (COII) genes were examined with the neighbor Joining, maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian inference methods. Our phylogenetic analyses suggest that the genus Meriones is not monophyletic and place M. tamaricinus as the sister taxon to a clade comprising Brachiones, Psammomys, Rhombomys, and the other Meriones species. The remaining Meriones species separate into three lineages: M. meridianus (including M. chengi), Meriones unguiculatus, and a clade that includes multiple Meriones species originating from Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. The phylogenetic relationships among the genera Brachines, Meriones, Psammomys, and Rhombomys remain ambiguous, probably due to the saturation of mutations that occurs in fast-evolving mitochondrial DNA. In addition, intraspecific variation was observed for M. meridianus, and this mostly correlated with collection localities, i.e., the northern and southern parts of the Xinjiang region. This variation corresponded to interspecific levels of divergence among other lineages of Meriones. Interestingly, no differences were observed in either the Cytb or COII gene sequences isolated from M. chengi collected from the Turfan Basin in the north and those from M. meridianus in the south, suggesting that M. chengi may be a synonym of M. meridianus.

In sea urchin spermatozoa, the energy required for flagellar motility depends only on the diffuslonal supply from proximal mitochondria, and thus the diffusion rate inside flagella is one of the most crucial factors limiting the practical size and design of the motile machinery. To determine the diffusion rates of materials inside sperm cells, FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching) analysis of incorporated fluorescent probes is one of the most powerful approaches. However, the only practically possible method until now was to use the ester forms of fluorescence, and our choice was limited to those of relatively small molecular masses, such as fluorescein derivatives. In this report, we show that a modified single-cell electroporation technique can be applied as a new microinjection method for sperm cells of the sea urchin. The method was applied to FRAP analysis to determine the rate of intraflagellar diffusion.

Bryoplana xerophila, a new genus and species of limnoterrestrial protoplanelline platyhelminth, was found in moss and soil covering a concrete wall in northern Alabama, USA. Bryoplana xerophila is the first taxon of limnoterrestrial Protoplanellinae recorded from North America and is one of the few rhabdocoels known from dry habitats. It is unique within Protoplanellinae in lacking rhabdites, having a pharynx rosulatus in the frontal half of the body, and lacking sclerotized parts in the male system. Notes on encystment, reproduction and feeding behavior are given. An updated identification key to all known genera of Protoplanellinae is presented.

Two new ostracod species, Semicytherura maxima n. sp. and S. ikeyai n. sp., both belonging to the S. henryhowel group of the genus, are described. They were collected from Akkeshi Bay in northeastern Japan, and inhabit the marine sediment surface in places deeper than the intertidal zone. Their distributions in northern Japan seem to be influenced by the cold-water Chishima Current (Oyashio). The geological distribution and species diversity were surveyed for each of the subgroups recognized in the S. henryhowei group. The results suggest that these subgroups split from each other in the NW Pacific by the Early Miocene, and that one of them has spread around the Northern Hemisphere, while the other has remained in the NW Pacific since that time.